FREE ESSAY ON WOMAN AT WORK

WOMAN AT WORK

Women at Work
In colonial America, women who earned their own living usually became seamstresses or
kept boardinghouses. But some women worked in professions and jobs available mostly to
men. There were women doctors, lawyers, preachers, teachers, writers, and singers. By the
early 19th century, however, acceptable occupations for working women were limited to
factory labor or domestic work. Women were excluded from the professions, except for
writing and teaching. 
The medical profession is an example of changed attitudes in the 19th and 20th centuries
about what was regarded as suitable work for women. Prior to the 1800s there were almost
no medical schools, and virtually any enterprising person could practice medicine.
Indeed, obstetrics was the domain of women. 
Beginning in the 19th century, the required educational preparation, particularly for the
practice of medicine, increased. This tended to prevent many young women, who married
early and bore many children, from entering professional careers. Although home nursing
was considered a proper female occupation, nursing in hospitals was done almost
exclusively by men. Specific discrimination against women also began to appear. For
example, the American Medical Association, founded in 1846, barred women from membership.
Barred also from attending men's medical colleges, women enrolled in their own for
instance, the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania, which was established in 1850. By
the 1910s, however, women were attending many leading medical schools, and in 1915 the
American Medical Association began to admit women members. 
In 1890, women constituted about 5 percent of the total doctors in the United States.
During the 1980s the proportion was about 17 percent. At the same time the percentage of
women doctors was about 19 percent in West Germany and 20 percent in France. In Israel,
however, about 32 percent of the total number of doctors and dentists were women. 
Women also had not greatly improved their status in other professions. In 1930 about 2
percent of all American lawyers and judges were women in 1989, about 22 percent. In 1930
there were almost no women engineers in the United States. In 1989 the proportion of
women engineers was only 7.5 percent. 
In contrast, the teaching profession was a large field of employment for women. In the
late 1980s more than twice as many women as men taught in elementary and high schools. In
higher education, however, women held only about one third of the teaching positions,
concentrated in such fields as education, social service, home economics, nursing, and
library science. A small proportion of women college and university teachers were in the
physical sciences, engineering, agriculture, and law. 
The great majority of women who work are still employed in clerical positions, factory
work, retail sales, and service jobs. Secretaries, bookkeepers, and typists account for a
large portion of women clerical workers. Women in factories often work as machine
operators, assemblers, and inspectors. Many women in service jobs work as waitresses,
cooks, hospital attendants, cleaning women, and hairdressers. 
During wartime women have served in the armed forces. In the United States during World
War II almost 300,000 women served in the Army and Navy, performing such noncombatant
jobs as secretaries, typists, and nurses. Many European women fought in the underground
resistance movements during World War II. In Israel women are drafted into the armed
forces along with men and receive combat training. 
Women constituted more than 45 percent of employed persons in the United States in 1989,
but they had only a small share of the decision-making jobs. Although the number of women
working as managers, officials, and other administrators has been increasing, in 1989
they were outnumbered about 1.5 to 1 by men. Despite the Equal Pay Act of 1963, women in
1970 were paid about 45 percent less than men for the same jobs; in 1988, about 32
percent less. Professional women did not get the important assignments and promotions
given to their male colleagues. Many cases before the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission in 1970 were registered by women charging sex discrimination in jobs. 
Working women often faced discrimination on the mistaken belief that, because they were
married or would most likely get married, they would not be permanent workers. But
married women generally continued on their jobs for many years and were not a transient,
temporary, or undependable work force. From 1960 to the early 1970s the influx of married
women workers accounted for almost half of the increase in the total labor force, and
working wives were staying on their jobs longer before starting families. The number of
elderly working also increased markedly. 
Since 1960 more and more women with children have been in the work force. This change is
especially dramatic for married women with children under age 6: 12 percent worked in
1950, 45 percent in 1980, and 57 percent in 1987. Just over half the mothers with
children under age 3 were in the labor force in 1987. Black women with children are more
likely to work than are white or Hispanic women who have children. Over half of all black
families with children are maintained by the mother only, compared with 18 percent of
white families with children. 
Despite their increased presence in the work force, most women still have primary
responsibility for housework and family care. In the late 1970s men with an employed wife
spent only about 1.4 hours a week more on household tasks than those whose wife was a
full-time homemaker. 
A crucial issue for many women is maternity leave, or time off from their jobs after
giving birth. By federal law a full-time worker is entitled to time off and a job when
she returns, but few states by the early 1990s required that the leave be paid. Many
countries, including Mexico, India, Germany, Brazil, and Australia require companies to
grant 12-week maternity leaves at full pay. 
Women at Work
In colonial America, women who earned their own living usually became seamstresses or
kept boardinghouses. But some women worked in professions and jobs available mostly to
men. There were women doctors, lawyers, preachers, teachers, writers, and singers. By the
early 19th century, however, acceptable occupations for working women were limited to
factory labor or domestic work. Women were excluded from the professions, except for
writing and teaching. 
The medical profession is an example of changed attitudes in the 19th and 20th centuries
about what was regarded as suitable work for women. Prior to the 1800s there were almost
no medical schools, and virtually any enterprising person could practice medicine.
Indeed, obstetrics was the domain of women. 
Beginning in the 19th century, the required educational preparation, particularly for the
practice of medicine, increased. This tended to prevent many young women, who married
early and bore many children, from entering professional careers. Although home nursing
was considered a proper female occupation, nursing in hospitals was done almost
exclusively by men. Specific discrimination against women also began to appear. For
example, the American Medical Association, founded in 1846, barred women from membership.
Barred also from attending men's medical colleges, women enrolled in their own for
instance, the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania, which was established in 1850. By
the 1910s, however, women were attending many leading medical schools, and in 1915 the
American Medical Association began to admit women members. 
In 1890, women constituted about 5 percent of the total doctors in the United States.
During the 1980s the proportion was about 17 percent. At the same time the percentage of
women doctors was about 19 percent in West Germany and 20 percent in France. In Israel,
however, about 32 percent of the total number of doctors and dentists were women. 
Women also had not greatly improved their status in other professions. In 1930 about 2
percent of all American lawyers and judges were women in 1989, about 22 percent. In 1930
there were almost no women engineers in the United States. In 1989 the proportion of
women engineers was only 7.5 percent. 
In contrast, the teaching profession was a large field of employment for women. In the
late 1980s more than twice as many women as men taught in elementary and high schools. In
higher education, however, women held only about one third of the teaching positions,
concentrated in such fields as education, social service, home economics, nursing, and
library science. A small proportion of women college and university teachers were in the
physical sciences, engineering, agriculture, and law. 
The great majority of women who work are still employed in clerical positions, factory
work, retail sales, and service jobs. Secretaries, bookkeepers, and typists account for a
large portion of women clerical workers. Women in factories often work as machine
operators, assemblers, and inspectors. Many women in service jobs work as waitresses,
cooks, hospital attendants, cleaning women, and hairdressers. 
During wartime women have served in the armed forces. In the United States during World
War II almost 300,000 women served in the Army and Navy, performing such noncombatant
jobs as secretaries, typists, and nurses. Many European women fought in the underground
resistance movements during World War II. In Israel women are drafted into the armed
forces along with men and receive combat training. 
Women constituted more than 45 percent of employed persons in the United States in 1989,
but they had only a small share of the decision-making jobs. Although the number of women
working as managers, officials, and other administrators has been increasing, in 1989
they were outnumbered about 1.5 to 1 by men. Despite the Equal Pay Act of 1963, women in
1970 were paid about 45 percent less than men for the same jobs; in 1988, about 32
percent less. Professional women did not get the important assignments and promotions
given to their male colleagues. Many cases before the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission in 1970 were registered by women charging sex discrimination in jobs. 
Working women often faced discrimination on the mistaken belief that, because they were
married or would most likely get married, they would not be permanent workers. But
married women generally continued on their jobs for many years and were not a transient,
temporary, or undependable work force. From 1960 to the early 1970s the influx of married
women workers accounted for almost half of the increase in the total labor force, and
working wives were staying on their jobs longer before starting families. The number of
elderly working also increased markedly. 
Since 1960 more and more women with children have been in the work force. This change is
especially dramatic for married women with children under age 6: 12 percent worked in
1950, 45 percent in 1980, and 57 percent in 1987. Just over half the mothers with
children under age 3 were in the labor force in 1987. Black women with children are more
likely to work than are white or Hispanic women who have children. Over half of all black
families with children are maintained by the mother only, compared with 18 percent of
white families with children. 
Despite their increased presence in the work force, most women still have primary
responsibility for housework and family care. In the late 1970s men with an employed wife
spent only about 1.4 hours a week more on household tasks than those whose wife was a
full-time homemaker. 
A crucial issue for many women is maternity leave, or time off from their jobs after
giving birth. By federal law a full-time worker is entitled to time off and a job when
she returns, but few states by the early 1990s required that the leave be paid. Many
countries, including Mexico, India, Germany, Brazil, and Australia require companies to
grant 12-week maternity leaves at full pay.