FREE ESSAY ON THE NECESSITY OF POSITIVE AND NORMATIVE ECONOMICS

THE NECESSITY OF POSITIVE AND NORMATIVE ECONOMICS

Keynes once wrote: "The object of a positive science is the establishment of uniformities,
of a normative science the determination of ideals." (Blaug, 122) This is the dichotomy
that economists recognize when approaching their field of study. The social scientist
must recognize both positive and normative distinctions, means and ends, as important
factors of fruitful research. Secondly, they must clearly express the conditions and
assumption which theories holds in order for economics to be useful for society.
Positive science is that which is a fact of nature or a fact by definition. In
mathematics this is the difference between the knowledge that the angles of a triangle
sum to 180 degrees, and the definition of a triangle as a two dimensional polygon with 3
sides. In economics, such facts of knowledge include that money is a store of value, or
facts of definition that the UN's Human Development Index ranks Canada above Mexico.
These are all positive facts. Whether they rely or are associated with values does not
reduce their factualness to a normative realm. One cannot refute positive statements by
claiming they are arrived at due to values. It is up to normative science to judge the
value of the HDI, a positive fact, and not mistake this action as denying the existence
of the HDI.
This is probably better stated with a topic from macroeconomics. Suppose that some
economists agree that inflation produces the social cost of having to adjust prices to
new levels. This is a completely positive statement. As long as every term has been
clearly defined, one can understand the relation between inflation (as defined) and cost
(as defined). Yes, the definitions have been chosen based on specific values, but this
does not disaffirm the statement as a true reflection of reality. Suppose we make a true
statement which denies that inflation produces this social cost, by defining inflation or
the cost differently. The old positive fact of reality that the first statement asserted
has not changed. By changing definitions, we have merely created a new positive
statement. A statement is a true positive fact, according to Weston, when it "is
consistent with definitions and axioms that define the system. We are not necessarily
saying anything about what is true outside of that system." (Weston, 4) The values we
have based each statement on does not induce them into the sphere of normative science.
Neither makes any statement concerning the values of inflation or costs, nor that one
statement is preferable over the other.
Here lies the duty of the economist: to make a normative decision on which positive
statements are most applicable to the needs of society. Do we want to evaluate policy
based on inflation definition number one or two? Do we care about social cost one more
than social cost two? These are in the scope of normative science. Effectual positive
facts are the means in reality to achieve ends. In this manner, economics is not
value-free, and for good reason. There must be some utility gained from knowledge for
research to be beneficial to mankind. Positive facts are not study for the sake of
learning positive facts, but as a possible means to an end.
Normative economics are those value statements which guide our use and development of
positive science. Positive facts are not limited by our values, but we can use our values
to determine which positive statements are of most interest to society. Positive
statements are the basis for any science, but do little good for mankind if we do not
evaluate and distinguish some statements as more useful than others. Thus positive
science is made fruitful through normative values, and reciprocally, normative judgments
are based on objective positive science.
It is best to demonstrate this with an example from a less controversial science,
physics. If a physicist decides that we need to further study thermodynamics in a
specific way because of the needs of applications in space, his approach is a normative
decision based on the normative desires of some group of people. However, the results
which he arrives at will remain true for the conditions and viewpoint specified, despite
the value to the space industry, which may actually need some other way of understanding
thermodynamics after all.
This demonstrates that the influence of values does not alter our perception of reality,
but allows us to discover increasingly more of it. If one positive fact is found
fruitless, this prompts more study which may be of use as a means to our end.
Additionally, most scientist will agree that once a positive fact is delineated, this
does not hinder further research into the area, for the sake of bettering understanding
and bettering the means already acheieved. Scientific tradition is a self-regulating
system, where unfounded biases are eliminated by intercourse with the rest of the
scientific community. Heilbroner admits that "economists perform few experiments that can
be rerun in a laboratory, their results cannot be so easily falsified as those of the
natural scientists, but they can be equally subject to scrutiny and criticism in the
forum of expert opinion." (Blaug, 120)
The point here is that the physicist does not claim that his new facts of thermodynamics
are all encompassing, representing all the knowledge necessary for human use of
thermodynamics. There may be other more beneficial aspects of thermodynamic theory which
are outside of the framework he has developed. 
This is the problem with unclarified value-laden economics. If we implicitly use a
definition of inflation or unemployment to make a positive statement, it can mislead
people to believe the statement applies to other (typically common use) definitions. One
positive statement about a specific type of unemployment will not be sufficient to make
all normative decisions. Thus some normative decisions reached would be based on
misinformation.
When one makes the claim, without any clarification, that unemployment increases wages,
this is a positive statement. It is true for some framework, but not necessarily for the
conditions that exist in reality at the time which we would like to make a normative
decision based on this "fact". It is at this point which the positive statement, because
not clearly articulated, becomes value-loaded. We cannot tell what assumptions the
economist made. This creates a statement most likely in support of his or her view of
what ought to be, trying to pass it off as less than such. If he or she left out wage
stickiness, it may be completely useless in our application to reality, despite the truth
of the statement in the right conditions. Accepting the statement as the only means of
making a policy decision would be allowing normative biases to pass as positive facts. 
Thus the reason for clear positive statements is that others may evaluate their
completeness. When an economist claims "If one wants to decrease this type of
unemployment under this situation with these assumptions, and so on," one can analyze
whether this is an effective positive statement which reflects the conditions of the
world, and is therefore useful to normative science. It is the action of taking the
economist's statement as a fact of universality which is the problem, not with "normative
influences" on the statements.
One may construct this whole process in the context of a simple physics problem. Say a
physicist, for whatever reason, values the possibility of a feather and a brick hitting
the ground simultaneously when dropped simultaneously from the same height. This may lead
him to the true theory that a feather and a brick fall at the same speed in a vacuum.
However, if everyone fails to understand that the earth is not a vacuum and tries to use
this theory, they will quickly learn that it is not complete or suited to our conditions.
This is the concern over normative influences, but should not be confused with the claim
that facts are not positive. This process leads to further theory and facts which may
better satisfy reality. In the interim, we have accumulated the knowledge about a
property of velocity in a vacuum. Positive science is not determined by normative
science, but aided by it. It is our normative interest which propels us to study and
enrich positive science.
Clearly, the positive/normative dilemma is a confusing issue. The best we can hope for is
that economists will be precise and open about all aspects of theories, therefore
allowing for regulation and disconfirmation in reality. Science is a building process
which is guided by our values, but which produce objective statements. It is only our
concern to use normative science correctly in evaluation of whether a specific "is"
dictates a specific "ought", and not allow our muddled definitions to provide "proof"
that positive science is non-existent. 
Bibliography
Blaug, Marc. The Methodology of economics. Cambridge University Press. 1992.
Weston, S. "Toward a Better Understanding of the Positive/Normative Distinction in
Economics." Economics and Philosophy. 10:1-18.