FREE ESSAY ON THE CIVIL WAR

THE CIVIL WAR

CIVIL WAR
Sectionalism
Before the civil war that tore the fabric of American life, there were three sections of
American people with different economic, cultural and political attitudes. The balance of
power was kept by different alliances, which came up in the pre-civil war period. The
west was the balancing power and it was its shift that decided the course of American
history. While it was allied with the south for economic reasons, a delicate balance was
maintained. The minute the west allied with the north, the shift resulted in
irreconcilable differences and led to war.
The boundaries of the sections were very fluid but the basic sections in the 1840s-1860s
were the north, which included New England, New York. Pennsylvania and New Jersey, the
west which included the present mid-west from Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan,
Wisconsin and Iowa to Minnesota and the south which included Maryland to Texas and
Missouri to Mississippi. 
Northeast
The northeast was comparatively advanced, industrially. The dominating class comprised of
the bankers, manufacturers and merchants. The growth of industry of America was mainly in
the north. The northeast section was known for its trading. The merchants realized more
returns in manufacturing than the early agriculture so we see a gradual but definite
shift to industrial investment, which signaled the beginning of industrialism.
The industrial capitalists were the ruling class in the north. They were the aristocrats
because of their economic dominance, which also meant their dominance in the political
system. In the political arena they were represented by lawyers articulating their
position and their philosophy hoping to influence policy making. For example Daniel
Webster, the politician from Massachusetts had the entire business community of that area
behind him. The ideals from the time of the declaration of independence still remained,
as there was no fear of tyranny of the majority over the minority. Checks and balances
were maintained to protect the right to private property. 
Numerous inventions were made with the number of patents increasing from 544 in 1830 to
4778 in 1860. Samuel Morse invented the electric telegraph system by the 1840s, which
came into use by the 1850s. Charles Goodyear invented the new method of vulcanization of
rubber in 1839which started being practiced in 500 odd places. It also resulted in the
establishment of the rubber industry. The steam cylinder press was invented by Richard
Hoe in 1846, which helped to make the printing of newspapers cheaply. Isaac Singer
invented the sowing machine in this period as well. 
The dominant economic business was the manufacturing of clothes, which diversified in
this period with the use of steam as power. In the 1830s we see the introduction of
railroads with coal replacing wood as the material for generating power. This led to the
rise of the coal industry in the northeast as the main coalmines were situated there.
Agriculture in this area also diversified since it could not compete with the fertile
virgin land of the west, which produced wheat, corn, cattle, sheep and horse.
There was a shift in agricultural products as with the growth of urbanization there was a
need for dairy products, food and vegetables. New York began to produce apples, New
Jersey and Maryland peaches and berries. Dairy products like milk and butter and cheese
also were produced. Farmers who were engaged in agriculture in the northeast either
diversified or migrated and became the labor class of the urban areas. Women and children
also worked, often for long hours (12-15 hrs. a day) getting paid $4-10 per week for
skilled and $1-6 for unskilled work. The labor was too weak to get organized into unions.
Some states like Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Pennsylvania tried to regulate child
labor by necessitating parental consent
The labor supply came mainly from the European countries like Ireland, Netherlands,
Belgium, Poland, France and Austria because of the population problem in the west. From
1840-1850, it is estimated that around 2 million immigrants came to the United States
especially from Germany.
West
The west was the balancing section in the American union as it shared common features
with both the north and the south. The economy was agrarian like the south but with
industries like the north. True, the industrial growth in the west was slow when compared
to the north, but it was faster than the south whose industrial growth was minimal.
Industries like meatpacking in Chicago (Ill.) and Cincinnati (Ohio) and industrial
centers like for meat, distilled whisky, leather, wooden goods, flour etc. were common. 
The main economic occupation was predominantly farming with small farming communities
unlike the large plantations of the south. The important economic activity was
agriculture with the growing of corn and wheat accompanied by cattle raising. 
Due to the large number of small farmers and few planters thee was no dominant class in
the political system of the west. The agricultural products had readymade markets in the
industrial northeast. So one can conclude that there was greater interdependence between
the northeast and the west than between the west and the south. Though the west had a
market in the European continent, their main market was still the home market. 
We see that there were many improved farming techniques like new varieties of seeds of
wheat for example and better breeds of animals like hogs from England and Spain. The farm
machinery in 1850s and 60s was more efficient like harrows, mowers and cast iron ploughs.
The manufacturing of machinery in these areas was also an important economic activity.
For example the replacing of the sickle with the macronic reaper resulted in the
establishment of a factory in Chicago in 1847.
The west has always been considered more democratic than all the other sections because
of the fact that there was no economic domination of any one section of society in
contrast to the merchant-dominated north and the planter-dominated south. The west had
both agriculture as well as industries though agriculture was the more dominant
occupation.
South
Prior to 1793, little cotton was produced in the United States as the process of the
separation of the fibers from the seeds had to be done by hand which was too time
consuming and thus ceased to be profitable. The cotton gin invented in 1793 by Eli
Whitney revolutionized the production of cotton. It now became profitable to raise short
staple cotton with the soil and climate favoring this and soon cotton production
stretched from Georgia and South Carolina westwards till Texas. With the growth of
British textile industry, cotton growers were assured of a market. Efficient cotton
growing could take place in both large and small plantations and slave labor was an
important part of cotton production. The move to diversified agriculture retreated to the
background as cotton growing seemed more profitable. Plantations flourished, as did slave
labor.
The anti-bellum south witnessed the growth of an agrarian economy with the rise of king
cotton and a revival of slavery. Cotton was 'king' since production of cotton doubled
every 10-12 years from 1812 onwards, 50% of American exports were of cotton and the
seaboard started a profitable slave trade with cotton planters. Economic prosperity
resulted in political domination by planters.
The economy of the south was very different than that of the other sections though it was
closer to the west as it was agricultural. There were three main features of the southern
economy-the cash crops of cotton, tobacco and sugar, the European market for its products
and the plantation system that required slaves as a labor force.
It was the slave system that distinguished the south from the other sections of the west
and the north.
The dominant class of society in the south was the planter class. Other important people
in the south were bankers and merchants, all of who were closely linked to the planter
class and on whom they were dependent. The industry of the manufacture of textiles was a
very important industry in the south but as is obvious, it was also closely connected to
the planter class. 
The planter class was not a uniform class with subdivisions based on the size of the
plantation- big, medium and small plantations. Even within the white population there
were divisions. The banker class dominated the economic sphere of southern life but the
plantation owners had more social status and so we often see an alliance between these
two classes.
It is firmly believed that the south had the maximum degree of culture and unity in terms
of Southernism. It was the strongest section in the United States as in the sectional
solidarity and the awareness of its entity. It had a cultural unity despite the
diversity, a coherence that led many historians to name this period as the anti-bellum
period while referring to the uniqueness of the south.
Even the climate has been attributed as a feature of this southern uniqueness. The hot
weather in the predominantly agrarian setup is seen as another facet in the southern
makeup. There was the existence of the plantation style cultivation based on the slave
labor produced tobacco, cotton and sugar which was mainly for export. The southern
planters had trade through merchants with England. Urbanization had not really occurred
on the scale of the northern section. There was a rural character with few towns and
cities consisting of a diffused population of 13 persons per square mile including the
slaves. The majority of the people were Anglo-Saxon and Protestant.
Southernism
The Southernism referred to by many historians consisted of certain features like the
rural character, the plantation system, slavery and the social organization and the very
different products of this region.
The rural character of the southern section is attributed to the people's love for their
land. There was also a devotion to the English culture and a conscious effort to recreate
English society in the lifestyles of the affluent of the south. The society was mainly
conservative, liking the status quo with no changes in their style of living. The society
was quite orderly with a clearly defined class organization though not a rigid one.
Social mobility was possible but not as easily as in the north or the west as there was
minimum class competition. Often the climate has been given to explain the comfortable
life enjoyed by the southern people. Everyone had an easy life without much effort, as
they were free from the necessity of conquering the environment, as the soil was very
fertile and easy to till. The southern people had a lot of spare time to enjoy life.
Though this would be an exaggeration, it is true that there was a lot of leisure time
especially among the higher classes. There was a belief or a passion for pleasure more
than toil with a firm conviction that it was more important to have pleasure than to have
profit.
The second feature often put forward to explain the uniqueness of the south is the
plantation system with salves as the labor force. U.B. Phillips believes the slave system
to be the main reason for the Southernism talked about. The south was the only area where
slavery was institutionalized and a vast number of slaves of different color and race
were found here. The people of the south were determined to keep the south as the white
man's south. Slavery was more than a labor force-it was a device of white supremacy.
Slavery was an institution supported by white people and the unifying factor for all
southerners be it planter or poor white was their superiority over the blacks.
From 1820s onwards, slavery was being criticized within the United States. It was
condemned by the northerners who were supported by the Latin Americans, British and other
Europeans. Slavery had been abolished all over the world and the only place where it
remained was in the south section of the United States. The people of the south were
aware of the criticism directed at their institution and knew that they defied world
opinion. They were under tremendous pressure and suffered from guilt over the issue. They
were probably uncomfortable with their separate identity. The dilemma deepened when the
majority of the south did not want slavery and its criticism while for the planters,
abolition was impossible. They realized the isolation due to this issue but could not
solve the problem.
The social organization of the southern society was very different from other areas of
the United States. There were 8 important groups of free population in the south. Slaves
were considered as property and the differences within their group were not taken into
account.
The eight main groups of society were-
1-Major Planters - They were the apex of society and were the aristocrats of the south.
They were called cotton or tobacco nabobs. They lived in huge palatial mansions using
slaves for their plantations. They numbered not more than 8,000 in the 1860's. This class
was the ideal of the south and every white man aspired to be part of this elite. 
2-Medium planters.
3-Small planters-Together the medium and small planters were 18,000 people.
The planters got the best education in the south. In a typical planter family, the elder
brother became the planter while the younger brothers generally tried for Senate
representation. They were trained to represent their class. The planter's class was
dependant on the merchants and the bankers for their life of luxury. They were the
trendsetters and led public opinion. This class considered itself superior to the rest
but the class distinctions were not rigid. If someone moved into a new area, he could
hope to become a major planter slowly.
This class formed a leadership top southern white society. They were the focus of all
moral and social aspirations of southern society. They were the ruling class and the
system continued to exist because of their superior feeling.
The small farmers were not exploited and his ambitions did not interfere with the major
and medium planters so the system continued. The major and medium planters had the lion's
share of income but since the small farmers were quite well off there were no economic
grievances against slavery. In fact, there were more slaves owned together by the medium
and small planters together than the major planters as they aspired to be major
planters.
This class liked the English culture gleaned mainly from English literature and imitated
their way of life. Most white people were of the pure Anglo-Saxon race and racial
discriminations became a way of life with them. Slavery was a part of their cultural and
social life and it was very difficult to break this.
4-Manufacturers and bankers-Industry in the south existed basically in a formative stage.
Few businessmen invested money outside a plantation. Planters with excess cash preferred
to invest in slaves. Factories for manufacture of textiles, iron, flourmills were set up
in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.
Brokers and merchants were very important people as they marketed the cash crops of the
south. This class was mainly situated in New Orleans, Charleston, Savanna, etc. They
became bankers or planters. They aspired to become planters, as it was a socially
dominant class. Though they played an important role in southern economy and society,
they were not recognized. After the 1850's, they were a neglected class.
5-Professional Classes-It comprised of lawyers, editors and doctors. They were linked to
the planter class as their well being depended on the planter's prosperity. They
generally agreed with the views of the planters and could be from a planter family.
6-Highlanders-They lived in the southern mountains in the Appalachian range in
Mississippi. They were a group of whiter people whose cultural pattern differed greatly
from southern society. They had a crude subsistence culture. As they lived outside the
main community, they were considered primitive and did not own any slaves. They believed
in the old ways, ideas and values. They had an almost emotional devotion to nationalism
and did not believe in State's rights. They were the only people in the south who defied
sectionalism and during the Civil War they resisted secession. They mainly lived in the
areas covered by West Virginia and Tennessee.
7-Poor Whites-They were a degraded class and after 1850, numbered almost half a million.
They were different from poor farmers and ranked just above slaves. They were
characterized by laziness, ignorance and lack of ambition. They were often called
"uncomplimentary" people, "crackers", "white trash" and occupied infertile land usually
swamps and barren tracks. They did not have a balanced diet and engaged in hunting,
fishing and growing vegetables at home. Their origin is obscure and one theory suggest
that they were the less competitive frontier population who were pushed back because they
were less enterprising. They were often afflicted by diseases like hookworm, malaria,
etc. and their situation only improved in the twentieth century with proper food and
health care.
8-Free Negroes-They were a displaced group as they were not slaves legally but race-wise
they were not free either. They often had to prove that they were free. It is estimated
that there were almost 250,000 free Negroes in 1860. They mainly lived in Louisiana,
Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri and North Carolina. Very few ever attained wealth and
prominence and the majority lived in poverty. Many avenues were closed to them by law and
they were viewed by the Whites as a danger to the institution of slavery. Citizenship was
denied to them and they were forbidden from attending legislative assemblies without
permission from and supervision by Whites. They could not hold property in White areas.
The crops grown in the south were generally cash crops like tobacco, rice, sugar and
cotton. Agriculture was diversified in Virginia and central Kentucky. Most farmers tried
to produce food grains for their family and their slaves so 80% of all peas and beans
came from the south.
Other things like apples, peaches, peanuts, sweet potatoes, hops, mules etc. despite
aspiring to self-sufficiency, corn and salted pork for the slaves had to be imported from
the northwest. 
Tobacco was grown in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, northern and western Tennessee,
Missouri and Mississippi valley. It was grown in the tideland of the regions and required
6 months for their production. Rice required 9 months and a constant supply of water for
its growth and was generally grown in South Carolina, Georgia and other coastal regions.
The time needed for the growth of sugar was 9 months and had the largest area under
production. Cotton was grown from North Carolina to Texas and was the principle product
of the south with the exception of the coastal area. It was produced in Alabama, Georgia,
northwest Mississippi, southwest Tennessee, southern Arkansas, Louisiana and eastern
Texas.
The farming methods employed which resulted in the exhaustion of soil as no crop rotation
was practiced. Some improvements were suggested by Edmund ruffle in "Farmer's Register"
like fertilization, rotation and deep ploughing.
Slavery as an institution was established by law and was regulated by law. The slaves had
no property rights, could not leave their master's premises without his permission, could
not congregate with other slaves except at church, couldn't carry firearms, couldn't
strike a white man even in defense, were not allowed to read or write, were denied the
right to testify in court against a white and were not allocated any provision for the
legalization of their marriage and divorce. Anyone who might have slave ancestry would be
a slave until he could prove otherwise. If a master killed his slave, he could not be
taken to court. 
Most laws pertaining to slaves and their treatment were unevenly applied and were not
enforced strictly. A slave's fate rested on his master and most slaves were treated
harshly. They could be punished by flogging or branding if they tried to run away or
resist. Major offences committed by slaves like one slave killing another were referred
to court.
The daily routine of a slave was regulated by his master. The head of the administration
was the owner. If he was a small planter, direct supervision of the slaves was carried
out. If the planter was a medium or large planter, an overseer and an assistant were
hired for example if the planter was involved in politics fulltime, the planter owned
large estates or needed the help. The slave drivers or the foremen were usually slaves
themselves and could have sub slave drivers etc. The methods for making the slaves work
were of two types-the task system where the task to be done by the slave could be done in
as much time as it took in a day and this was used for rice production or the gang system
where slaves worked as groups with slave drivers and they worked for a specific number of
hours decided upon by the overseer and was used for the growing of sugar, cotton and
tobacco.
The physical condition of the slave was supported by an adequate rough diet of corn mill,
salt pork and molasses and the slaves were encouraged to grow their own garden. Fresh
meals could be issued on special occasions. Slaves started working early in life with
light work, which increased as they grew. Their workday was often as long as northern
farmers with time off to hunt, fish, attend church and other social activities of the
white family. They wore cheap clothes and shoes and lived in log cabins or slave
quarters. Their medical care was looked after by the mistress of the house. 
Generally the conditions of the house servants were much better than the badly exploited
field hands. Slaves could be privileged butlers, nurses, skilled craftsmen and filed
workers.
It may be pointed out here that according to figures, very few people actually owned
slaves. In the 1860s, of the total population of 8 million people of the south, only 4.3%
owned slaves. Of this miniscule numbers, most people had around 2-9 slaves. In the 1830s,
for the first time, political and intellectual leaders began to opine that slavery was
not an evil but a good and it should be regarded as a permanent institution. This
proslavery propaganda was accompanied by a hardening of public sentiment. The support of
the south for the institution of slavery came not just from the whites who owned slaves.
They were supported by the white population of the south who saw slaves as an inferior
race and this fed their sense of superiority. They also feared competition from freed
slaves for their trades.
The economic viability of slavery is a debatable issue. Slavery as an efficient labor
system was not feasible, as the slaves did not have enough compulsion to do more than
would be extracted from them by force. Slavery made the south's economic system less
flexible and progressive. The success of plantation agriculture hindered the growth of a
more diversified economy. The reluctance of white men to work as a free labor force due
to the social stigma attached to it meant that the economy never progressed beyond the
rural character to industrialization uniformly. Huge profits were made by businessmen at
the expense of the planters who were often indebted to the merchants both of the south
and the north.
Causes Of The Civil War
Economic
Charles Bearde gives economic issues like the high tariff, the homestead law and the
transcontinental railroad as the causes of the civil war. The high tariff issue has
always been a bone of contention between the north and the south. The primary source of
federal revenues until the outbreak of the civil war was duties imposed on imports. This
taxation gave protection to internal industries against foreign competition, which
favored the north as they had the maximum of industries. Acts like the embargo act and
the non-intercourse act encouraged the growth of manufacturing in the north. The south
not anticipating any major developments were strongly opposed to protectionist measures.
They also believed that the high tariffs increased the prices of their imports and
restricted the market for their exports. This issue brought the north supported by the
western states in conflict with the southern states.
The immense land acquired by the government by the end of the Mexican war was to be
distributed according to the homestead law. The north favored the giving away of land at
a cheap price to the common people while the south wanted the land to be given to the
highest bidder so that plantation land could be expanded. According to the homestead law,
any person was given 160 acres of land, which he had to cultivate for 5 years and he paid
a small fee on the acquiring of land. The law was criticized by the south, as their aim
of extending plantation style agriculture was defeated.
Trans continental railroads were to be built with federal aid across the American land.
The north and the west were unanimous in their support to the building of the railroad,
as it would greatly benefit their development. The south did not see any benefit to them
and refused to pay taxes for something that they said they did not need.
These economic causes have been criticised as the tariffs were not always high except in
1816, 1828 and 1832 and was usually lower. Also when the markets for southern goods
declined in Europe and the south turned to local markets, the railroads were supported by
them as well. 
Westward expansion
In 1819, there were 22 states in the American union, 11 of which were free states and 11
were slave states. Due to the increase of population in the free states, their
representation in the house of representation was greater than that of the slave states.
But in the senate, where every state had a single vote, a balance was maintained between
the slave states and the free states. To maintain this balance, admission of new states
was usually done in pairs as far as possible with a free state entering the union along
with a slave state. Many compromises were made like the Missouri compromise of 1820. This
compromise meant that the states above the 36?30' were to be given the status of a free
state and the states below this line were to be slave states. This became the center of
controversy later on as its repeal further widened the schism between the north and the
south. 
Texas was admitted as a slave state when after vacillation the American union was not
admitting it, they applied to Britain and this worried the Americans enough to allow
Texas to enter the union unaccompanied by a free state. The ending of the Mexican war
resulted in Texas asking for more territory, which the northerners were against, as it
would mean the extension of slavery. The fact that the capital of the country still had
slavery was according to the north a disgrace. The north-south rift grew when many
northern organizations helped fugitive slaves to escape to Canada. The question of
whether the congress had the authority to decide if slavery should be allowed or not was
very worrying and which led to the controversial Dredscott's decision. The Wilmot proviso
saying that areas acquired from the Mexican war should be free states was opposed by the
south. 
Clays compromise, fugitive slave act, the Kansas-Nebraska act.
Slavery- describe the institution of slavery, 'slavery as a cause of the civil war"
tutorial. 
One can conclude that though slavery was not the sole cause of the civil war, the issue
of slavery was both an important factor in the sectionalism, which was one of the reasons
for the war, and it symbolized and disguised many other differences between the north and
the south.
Political Causes 
Ever since the federal convention in 1787, there had been a tacit political balance
between the 2 great sections along the old Mason-Dixon line and the Ohio River, which
divided the slave holding states and territories from which slavery was abolished and in
the process of extension. Ever since the birth of the nation, a series of compromises had
held the 2 sections together. At the time of framing of the constitution, the conflict
was settled by deciding the percent of representation to the House of Representatives and
accordingly only three-fifths of the black population would be taken into account and the
senate would have equal representation from all the states irrespective of size of
population.
This system worked well so long as the number of free and slave states remained equal but
at the close of 1819, when the territories of Missouri and Maine applied for statehood,
tension between the 2 sections mounted again on the grounds of whether they should be
admitted as free or slave states which was resolved by the Missouri compromise of 1820.
By the late 1840s, the sectional conflict was beginning to affect national political
parties. The Whig party was split into those who opposed slavery openly and those who
supported it because of their trade with the southern planters and the latter had
powerful backing from the south. 
The democrat party was becoming more and more an instrument of the south. The northern
democrats became resentful of the pro-south leaning of the party and this led too their
joining with the abolitionist Whigs to form the Republican Party in 1854.
The problem of slavery in the new territories was reopened in 1848 when Oregon,
California, new Mexico and Utah needed to be admitted to the union. The Missouri
compromise was unacceptable to the both the northern and southern extremists. This issue
was avoided in the election of 1848 when the Whig party's Zachary Taylor was elected as
president. The emergence of the free soiler party, which polled enough votes to ruin the
chances of the Democratic Party, is important in this election. 
The question of admitting California and New Mexico had to be resolved but the situation
became more difficult when California adopted a constitution in 1849 by which it became a
free state and in 1850, the people of New Mexico did the same. Henry clay tried to
introduce a compromise which would solve the above problem as well as the problem of
slavery in Washington D.C., the boundary between Texas and new Mexico, the war
expenditure of Texas which was not being assumed by the government and the personal
liberty law and how it was to be applied to the fugitive slaves.
Clays compromise was greatly discussed and debated and finally accepted in 1850 with many
concessions to the south. California was admitted as a free stat, New Mexico was
organized as a territory when Texas relinquished control over it in return for $3 million
as the war debt. Utah was organized as a territory. Slave trade in Washington D.C. was
abolished and in return the north had to enact a stringent fugitive slave act by which a
Negro accused of being a fugitive was denied his day in court and his status was to be
determined by a united states judge or a circuit court commissioner who would usually be
bribed. Federal marshals had to do their best to catch fugitive slaves and any citizen
who helped a fugitive would be heavily penalized. 
Though this compromise solved the immediate problems of the nation, it did not stem the
crisis of secession of 1860.
The transcontinental railroad problem was another issue, which showed the sectionalism
rife in the United States.
There was a widespread desire for sectional harmony after the Missouri compromise of 1820
and this was evident in the election of 1852. The democrats reaffirmed the compromise and
nominated a dark horse, Franklin pierce of New Hampshire to break a deadlock over the
selection of leaders. The Whigs were weaker in the defense of the compromise in
comparison and lost when they nominated Winfield Scott. The decline in the anti-slavery
feeling was obvious when the free soil party's votes dropped dramatically from their
maiden election of 1848.
Nicaragua and Honduras- the pierce administration of 1853-1857 pursued an aggressive and
expansionist foreign policy, which was mainly for the benefit of the south. Southerners
were very interested in acquiring Cuba where slavery was legal and the government was
negotiating for its sale to America by Spain. Though this failed, it was publicized and
the northerners thought that the southerners were trying to acquire a new slave state and
insisted that there was a southern conspiracy. Southerners were also interested in areas
in the South American continent where slave states might be carved out. A southern
adventurer, William walker led an expedition to Nicaragua in 1855, where he was dictator
for some time and tried to raid Honduras as well. All these incidents were seen by the
northerners as a move by the southerners to extend slavery and avoid abolition. 
*The expansion of American business was spreading from an early time. In 1819
missionaries went to Hawaii where they established connections, which later helped in
annexation. In 1830, china was being opened up and commercial treaties were being signed.
In 1853, commodore Perry led a naval expedition to Japan, which led to the signing of a
commercial treaty.
In the Canadian border, there was a conflict between England and America over the fishing
rights of the Americans. In 1854, the problem was solved through the reciprocal treaty,
which gave the privilege to Canadians for passage of goods from and to the United States
without the custom duties in exchange for American fishing rights. *
The transcontinental railroad question was also being discussed and the route for the
railroad was to be decided. The northerners wanted a northern route for the railroad,
which would run through Chicago or st. Louis while the south wanted a route through New
Orleans along the Mexican border till Los Angeles. In 1854, senator Douglas (Ill.)
presented the Kansas-Nebraska bill, which recommended the repeal of the Missouri
compromise with the issue of slavery to be decided by popular sovereignty in the new
regions to be created- Kansas and Nebraska. 
This bill was strongly backed by the pierce administration and was passed despite huge
opposition and hostile public opinion. The bill did not specify when popular sovereignty
should be applied to the territory. While the southerners felt that slavery should be
allowed and only when admission was sought, then popular sovereignty should be exercised,
Douglas believed that the first settlers should decide and that the earliest elections
were important. Utah, New Mexico and Nebraska were not being discussed by the southerners
as possible slave states because the region was too arid. But Kansas was situated close
to the slave state of Missouri and the soil was suited to slavery. 
Northern anti-slavery states set up aid societies to help northerners to settle in Kansas
hoping to make it a free state. The settlers were mainly against both slavery and slaves
and had no sympathies with either the abolitionists or the southerners. 
In the election of 1855 in Kansas, many Missourians came and voted for slavery electing
pro slavery candidates. The government formed was pro slavery and supported by the pierce
administration. While the abolitionists formed their own government and drafted a free
state constitution, the pro slavery government established a slave state and drafted a
constitution.
Initial hostility between the two governments in Kansas escalated into full-scale
violence and Kansas was referred to as "bleeding Kansas". 
John brown, a northern abolitionist further worsened the situation when he led a band of
armed men and killed 5 proslavery inhabitants of Kansas in 1856. In 1859, he captured an
arsenal in Virginia and hoped to lead an attack to free the slaves in the south. Though
he was caught and executed, he was martyred by the north and vilified by the south
further deepening the rift between the two sections. 
In 1856, senator Charles Sumner who was a radical anti slavery proponent was talking of
violence in Kansas, accused senator butler of South Carolina. Butler's nephew, Preston
brooks beat Sumner unconscious later. This act of violence shows the deep feeling of the
two sides.
The north, infuriated by the passing of the Kansas-Nebraska bill and the fugitive slave
bill passed many personal liberty laws, which made the capture of fugitive slaves very
difficult. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was a book written by Harriet Beecher Stowe and first
published in 1852. It greatly increased the resurgence of anti-slavery feeling, with its
emotional force and dramatic effectiveness. It was an extremely influential book and
fuelled the abolitionists' fervor and broadened their public support.
The formation of the Republican Party by the combination of Whigs and democrats and the
free soilers all of whom were anti slavery occured during this time. Their support base
was from the western farmers and eastern businessmen. Charles Sumner and William Seward
were the main leaders of the party. 
In the election of 1856, the democrats nominated James Buchanan who supported popular
sovereignty, the republicans nominated john Fremont and the Whigs nominated Fillmore.
Though Buchanan won the election, the success of the republican candidate in the north
showed that without the northern democrats, the republicans were poised to defeat the
democrats in 1860. 
The Buchanan showed a decided southern bias in its work especially when the tariffs were
lowered in 1857, the veto of the Homestead Act and pro-southern policies. Buchanan's
ineffectiveness in administration was further aggravated by the Dredscott's decision of
the Supreme Court. 
Dredscott was a slave who belonged to an army surgeon who was from Missouri, a slave
state. He was taken by his master to the free states of Illinois and Wisconsin and then
brought back to Missouri. Later he sued that since he had resided in areas where slavery
was prohibited by law he was a free man. His case was picked up by abolitionists who
helped him. Six judges of the Supreme Court agreed that since he was living in Missouri,
he was a slave. Chief justice Taney further went on to say that since Dredscott was not a
citizen of the country he did not have the right to bring the case to court. He also said
that the congress could not abolish slavery from any sates since that interfered with the
right of private property of a citizen, thus making the Missouri compromise
unconstitutional and making slavery legal all over the country. 
A convention was held in Kansas by the proslavery faction, which drafted a constitution
legalizing slavery. Buchanan supported this constitution called the Lecompton
constitution. The new governor of Kansas, Walker established free and fair election,
which resulted in the freesoilers gaining control of the government, but Buchanan
dismissed walker.
Now the Democratic Party split with the northern wings led by Douglas and the southern
wing still loyal to the administration. 
In the reelection for Douglas for the senate ship he was opposed by Lincoln. There were a
series of debates and though Douglas was reelected, Lincoln became a national figure. In
the presidential election of 1860, he was elected and his election precipitated the
secession of the southern states. 
On 20 december1861, South Carolina unanimously voted for secession from the union. Less
than a month later, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas joined
South Carolina in secession, though minority groups opposed it. The confederacy was
formed with Jefferson Davis as the president. The union, under president Buchanan offered
a compromise to reverse their secession. When this failed and Lincoln took over on 6
March, 1861he had to deal with this problem. Lincoln sent reinforcements to fort Sumter
in South Carolina. When South Carolina attacked this force, war was declared in April
1861.
Four of the remaining slave states joined the confederacy- Virginia, North Carolina,
Tennessee and Arkansas. The western counties refused to go into war and formation of a
new state of West Virginia occurred in 1863.
Civil war
In 1861, the United States was plunged into a four-year struggle, which proved to be the
greatest civil war in history and the first modern war in which victory was decided by
industrial strength. The north eventually won the war because she blockaded the
confederate ports and imposed economic strangulation. The confederate army was led by
general lee while the union had many able generals like grant, mc Dowell etc.
Effects Of The Civil war
The American civil war proved to be the greatest civil war waged in history. It was the
war fought between the northern and southern states of the American union. The sectional
conflict caused by different reasons resulted in people on both sides getting antagonized
with each other. The war raged all over the country, from Volved, New Mexico to St.
Alban, Vermont. More than 3 million Americans fought the war and more than 600,000 men
died in it. Also it was the first modern war in which victory depended primarily on
industrial strength. There was also the newness of the war where plenty of new weapons,
new strategies of destruction, new standards of generalship combined with the birth of
photography which permanently could remind the people with all that had been
photographed. Around 50,00 books have been written on this event. Although Walt Whitman
said that the real war will never get in a book, but this did not deter the people from
writing.
No one could have predicted the magnitude it brought America following the first shot at
fort Sumter in South Carolina by the southern states (called the confederacy) on 12th
April 1861. The war turned out to be the most defining and shaping event in American
history so much so that we cannot imagine American history without it. In the 50000 books
written, there are countless diaries, regimented history, biographies, social analyses,
pictorial essays and other works that have treated the subject of the civil war in
different ways. This was an event that had such great effects on the country that it
conditioned the entire culture of America. It became a focus of myth and the anchor of
meaning for the whole society; such was the power of its fascination.
10 billion dollars of property was laid waste in the south while two-fifths of its
livestock was destroyed. The south was completely devastated after 4 years of war.
No other single event in the history of America has brought such momentous changes in all
spheres of life. Never again was there a problem of secession. The defeat of the south
settled forever the question of secession, giving triumph to nationalism over
sectionalism.
The emergence of the Negro as a free citizen, created a new dimension in the political
and social life of the nation, making vast changes in the arrangement of classes and in
the course of industrial development. This is probably why Bearde called it a second
American revolution.
The war destroyed the planting aristocracy leading to the triumph of capitalist and free
laborers. Also it augmented the power of the federal government at the cost of the rights
of the state. It pushed forward the power of the constitution. 
Thomas Cochran also pointed out that though there was clear symptom of rising
industrialization before 1860, it was during and after the war that the real course of
industrialization took place. And the structure of American business began to assume a
shape, which became familiar in the later years. This view is supported by Faulkner and
Hacker.
The most dramatic effect of the civil war was on the south. It was vanquished,
demoralised and had to orient itself to a new economic and social system because the war
had destroyed its old basic structure. So remarkable was the impact of the war that the
post-bellum south has also been called the new south. Historians differ according to
their pro-south and anti-south treatment. For example Thomson, who was pro-south, found
that the southern leaders after reconstruction were honest and dedicated men but lacked
the qualities of vision. This has been challenged by C. Van Woodward. He suggests the
southerners were not honest and characterized their leaders as redeemers, who advocated
industrialization and reconciliation with the north and adopted by and large a more
liberal attitude towards the Negroes.
Amongst the social classes the Negroes were the most profoundly affected by the civil
war. Apthekar's viewpoint is useful in understanding the condition of the Negro in the
civil war. Dr. potter says that the civil war put an end to "chattel slavery". It was the
biggest act of confiscation in history. The civil war freed the American chattel slaves
and now there was an overwhelming shortage of labor. Immigration was encouraged after
1864. The southern economy fell into disarray. The confederate money and lands were
valueless and its holders impoverished. The plantations were ruined and cotton production
had declined and whatever manufacturing that existed was destroyed. There were wounded
war veterans and broken families. In many places, the civil government had disintegrated.
The war also saw the triumph of northern capitalism. However the efforts of assessment of
the effects of the civil war are still continuing. 
AKSHARA PRADHAN